Historical+Conceptions+of+Wisdom

**Historical Perspectives of Wisdom** In many ways, the conceptual evolution of wisdom exemplifies its multi-faceted nature. Wisdom has always been seen as //the practical know-how essential for a successful and constructive life//. Even in the most ancient wisdom texts (e.g., the Sumerian //[|Epic of Gilgamesh],// the Egyptian [|//Wisdom of Amenemope//], and the Hebrew [|//Wisdom of Sirach//] ), there is a sense of order in which one’s actions are reason-driven and aim to benefit oneself and the society in which one lives (Karelitz et al., 2010).
 * //A Two-Pronged Focus: Pragmatism and Morality//**

The meaning of wisdom expanded and evolved with ancient cultures, and //people began associating wisdom with the divine//. Behaving wisely was seen as a //commitment to live a moral and just life, following a divine ethical code//. This dual emphasis on practical knowledge and morality can be traced from the earliest recorded civilizations right through to the present time. Many modern conceptualizations of wisdom continue to balance both a pragmatic and moral view of wisdom (Karelitz et al., 2010).

The concept of wisdom //evolved differently for Eastern and Western cultures// across history, although wisdom as a whole began to be thought of in ways that were more practical and human-based (Karelitz et al., 2010).
 * //The Eastern-Western Divide //**

__//Western thinkers//__ (Karelitz et al., 2010)
 * 5th century B.C. - Greek philosophers such as [|Socrates], [|Plato], and [|Aristotle]gave the first intensive Western analysis of the concept of wisdom.
 * Emphasized //intellectual, systematic inquiry into wisdom//, applying both [|dialectical discourse] and [|pedagogy]
 * Overall emphasis on //rationally-driven cognition and behavior//.
 * Possession of knowledge of the right rationale considered wisdom.

**In the following video, Dr. Sean Kelly, a primary researcher for the University of Chicago's [|Defining Wisdom Project], gives a modern perspective on the ancient Greek conceptualization of wisdom:**

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__//Eastern thinkers //__ (Karelitz et al., 2010)
 * Eastern wisdom seen as an advanced stage of the mind
 * Also //emphasizes noncognitive features such as holistic experiences// involving the //integration of mind, affect, intuition, and behavior//
 * Eastern traditions tend to downplay the role of rational thought in the path to enlightenment.
 * More attention given to the //spiritual, transformational, and integrative aspects of human consciousness//.
 * Nearly a century prior to when Greek philosophers began systematically discussin g wisdom, individuals such as [|Confucius] and [|Gautama Buddha] were conceptualizing wisdom as a way of life that is oriented toward //self-actualization// and that //leads to an ideal state of being//.
 * In both [|Confucianism] and [|Buddhism], moral, ethical, balanced, and peaceful conducts of life are all directly related to wisdom.
 * A wise person would denounce greed and selfishness, and embrace compassion, calmness, and a genuine desire to improve oneself and one’s surroundings.
 * Ultimately, Eastern philosophies //perceive wisdom as a utopian state of mind, but one that can be achieved by education, dedication, and experience//.

Societal events and movements have continued to shape the philosophic and academic discourse of wisdom throughout history. At different times and places in the past, //wisdom has been “studied” through different lenses// : religious, scientific, practical, moral, experiential, and societal; yet //each body of text emphasizes different aspects of the same phenemona//. Despite such diverse emphases, one line of thought permeates almost all of these historical perspectives: Wisdom requires both the intent and the knowledge to act according to higher principles (whether these are based on supreme reason, divine knowledge, impeccable morals, or a utopian state of being). In other words, wisdom involves //the application of sound sense to all matters of life with the purpose of becoming and remaining a good person//. Being good toward yourself and being good to others will in turn eventually lead to flourishing. //The basic goal of wisdom is thus to protect us and to help us grow// (Karelitz et al., 2010).
 * //"Tying it All Together"//**

**Issues of Diversity** //** The Many Faces of Wisdom **//
 * //Wisdom is highly context-dependent// – What we consider wise today might be deemed foolish tomorrow; what is considered wise in one culture or situation may be inappropriate in another (Kareltiz, et al., 2010)
 * For example, consider the changing application of practical wisdom as it relates to infant sleeping positions. Whereas parents were once told that it was best to place infants on their stomachs when sleeping, it is now considered wise to place them on their backs or sides to help prevent [|Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)].
 * //Conceptions of wisdom tend to differ with respondents’ characteristics//, such as age, spiritual beliefs, professions, gender, and culture (Karelitz et al., 2010)
 * For example, Denny, Dew, & Kroupa (1995) found that although both genders share a similar understanding of the meaning of wisdom, males were nominated as being wise with respect to specific skills, whereas females were nominated as being wise in interpersonal relationships.
 * //Nearly every identified culture in the world has its own ideal of wisdom// . Thus, individuals within a given culture tend to share a common understanding of what it means to be wise, but //that meaning differs across cultures// (Karelitz et al., 2010).
 * For example, studies of Hispanic American communities have shown that spiritual and interpersonal, rather than cognitive aspects, are related to perceived wisdom. (Valdez, 1994)


 * Below is a video of proverbs/words of wisdom collected from different cultures all over the world: **

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In 2001, Yang studied wisdom among the Taiwanese Chinese, and discovered four pairs of components commonly associated with wisdom: Such a conceptualization of wisdom appears to closely align with the historical Eastern focus on the integration of mind, affect, intuition, and behavior (Kareltiz et al., 2010).
 * //The Eastern-Western Divide Revisited//**
 * Competencies and Knowledge
 * Benevolence and Compassion
 * Openness and Profundity
 * Modesty and Unobtrusiveness

Along similar lines, comparisons of implicit theories of wisdom in Eastern and Western cultures have shown that Eastern participants believe that the adjective //wise//, is most semantically similar to //discreet//, followed by //aged// and //experienced//. By contrast, Western participants rated //wise// as least similar to //discreet//, and most similar to //experienced// and //knowledgable// (Takahashi & Bordia, 2000).

It thus appears that the //differential influences of Eastern and Western philosophies of wisdom are still very present today//. In general, modern //__Western cultures__// still tend to emphasize an ** //analytic mode of wisdom// ** that //simplifies human experience into manageable pieces of information// and examines their relationships. Modern __//Eastern cultures//__, on the other hand, tend to focus on the //**synthetic mode of wisdom**//, emphasizing a more //holistic view of experience// as well as reflective, integrative, and //transformational aspects of the mind// (Karelitz et al., 2010).


 * The following table outlines some of the basic concepts/issues related to Eastern vs. Western philosophies. Many of the issues listed below may serve to shape how Eastern and Western cultures both conceptualize and pursue wisdom .**

// "Though he should conquer a thousand men in the battlefield a thousand times, yet he, indeed, who would conquer himself is the noblest victor." ~ Buddha // // "He who conquers others is strong; he who conquers himself is mighty." ~ Lao Tzu // //"// //The most excellent Jihad is that for the conquest of self."// ** – **// [|Mohammad] // ||  [|Winning] is **outside** yourself. // "You're not a star until they can spell your name in Karachi." ~ Roger Moore //// " // [|Life] // affords no higher pleasure than that of surmounting difficulties, passing from one stop of success to another, forming new wishes and seeing them gratified." ~ Samuel Johnson //// "It is not because things are difficult that we do not dare; it is because we do not dare that they are difficult." // || // "To create and develop without any feelings of ownership, to work and guide without any expectation and control, is the best quality" ~ [|Lao Tzu] // // To achieve self-liberation and nirvana you need to perform your duties without expecting any reward for it. ~ Vedanta, Hinduism // // "Action can be achieved by inaction, where the result is achieved by "Not-Me" ~ Zen // || **Pragmatic** and **emotional** approach. // "The supreme accomplishment is to blur the line between work and play." ~ Arnold Toynbee //// "Since most of us spend our lives doing ordinary tasks, the most important thing is to carry them out extraordinary well." ~ Henry David Thoreau //// "Every minute you spend in [|planning] saves 10 minutes in execution." ~ Brian Tracy // || // "Be satisfied with whatever you have, and enjoy the same. When you come to know that you have everything, and you are not short of anything, then the whole world will be yours." ~ Lao Tzu // // "The thought manifests as the word; The word manifests as the deed; The deed develops into [|habit]; And habit hardens into [|character]. So watch the thought and its ways with care, And let it spring from love born out of concern for all beings." ~ Buddha // || ** Ethic ** // " Refrain from doing ill; for one all powerful reason, lest our children should copy our misdeeds; we are all to prone to imitate whatever is base and depraved." ~ Juvenal // // "There is no real excellence in all this world which can be separated from right living." ~ David Starr Jordan // || // A man can separate his/her mind from his/her emotions and control them. ~ Taoism // || Through **analysis** // "I can control my [|passions] and emotions if I can understand their nature." ~ Spinosa // || // "In order to guide people, the // [|leader] // must put himself behind them. Thus when he is ahead they feel no hurt." ~ Lao Tzu // || **Hands-on**; walking ahead of people; speech is golden. // " // [|Leadership] // is done from in front. Never ask others to do what you, if challenged, would not be willing to do yourself." ~ [|Xenophon] // ||
 * **Issues** || Eastern Philosophy || Western Philosophy ||
 * **Main Schools** || [|Buddhism], [|Confucianism], [|Hinduism], [|Integral Yoga], [|Islam], [|Taoism] , [|Zen] || [|Christianity]**, Rational, Scientific, Logical schools** ||
 * **Relationship with Religion** || Integration || Opposition ||
 * **Search for Absolute Truth** || * Systemic approach – all events in the universe are interconnected
 * Searching inside yourself – by becoming a part of the universe through [|meditation] and right living || * More focused on individual events and the role of the person
 * Searching outside yourself - through research and analysis ||
 * **Search for Truth & Fundamental Research** || The truth is given; does not to have be proved. The philosophic base for and culture of fundamental research is weaker. || The truth needs to be proven. The philosophic base for and culture of fundamental research is stronger. ||
 * **Improvement / Evolution** || **Cyclic** development, hence [|improvement] is a never ending journey that has no limits. || **Linear** development, hence improvement has a goal. Development stops when the goal is reached. ||
 * **Achievement & Winning** || Winning is **inside** yourself.
 * **Implementation** || **Spiritual** and **missionary** approach.
 * **Living Principles** || ** Virtue **
 * **Living Principles** || ** Virtue **
 * **Establishing Control Over Your Emotions** || Through **[|meditation]**
 * **Leadership** || **Spiritual**; walking behind people; silence is golden.

Denney, N.W., Dew, J.R., & Kroupa, S.L. (1995). Perceptions of wisdom: What is it and who has it? //Journal of Adult Development, 2//(1), 37-47.
 * References **

Karelitz, T.M., Jarvin, L., & Sternberg, R.J. (2010). Chapter 23: The meaning of wisdom and its development throughout life. In R.M. Lerner & W.F. Overton (Eds.), //The handbook of lifespan development: Cognition, biology, and methods// (Vol. 1, pp. 837-875). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Takahashi, M., & Bordia, P. (2000). The concept of wisdom: A cross cultural comparison. //International Journal of Psychology, 35//(1), 1-9.

Valdez, J.M. (1994). Wisdom: A Hispanic perspective (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University, 1993). //Dissertation International Abstract, 54,// 6482-B.

Yang, S. (2001). Conceptions of wisdom among Taiwanese Chinese. //Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32//(6), 662-680.